Urban II.
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born c. 1035, Châtillon-sur-Marne, or Lagery, or Lagny, Champagne, France
died July 29, 1099, Rome [Italy]
original name Odo Of Châtillon-sur-marne, or Odo Of Lagery, or Of Lagny, French Odon, or Eudes, De Châtillon-sur-marne, or De Lagery, or De Lagny
Head of the Roman Catholic church (1088–99) who developed ecclesiastical reforms begun by Pope Gregory VII. (1020-1085), launched the Crusade movement, and strengthened the papacy as a political entity.
Early life and career.
Odo was born of noble parents about 1035 in the Champagne region of France. After studies in Soissons and Reims, he took the position of archdeacon in the diocese of Reims, at that time the most important metropolis in France. An archdeacon was an ordained cleric appointed by the bishop to assist him in administration; in the Middle Ages it was an office of considerable power. Odo held the position probably from 1055 to 1067. Subsequently he became a monk and then (c. 1070–74) prior superior at Cluny, the most important centre of reform monasticism in Europe in the 11th century. At Reims and Cluny, Odo gained experience in ecclesiastical policy and administration and made contacts with two important reform groups of his time: the canons regular—clergymen dedicated to the active service of the church, who live a strict life in community—and the monks of Cluny. In 1079 he went to Rome on a mission for his abbot, Hugh of Cluny.
While in Rome he was created cardinal and bishop of Ostia (the seaport for Rome) by Gregory VII. In 1084 Gregory VII sent him as papal legate to Germany. During the crisis of Gregory VII's struggle with Heinrich IV. (1050-1106), the Holy Roman emperor, Odo remained loyal to the legitimate papacy. After Gregory VII's death in 1085, he also served his successor, Victor III. (1027-1087), who died in September 1087. After a long delay, during which the reform cardinals tried unsuccessfully to regain control of Rome from Guibert of Ravenna, who had been named Pope Clement III. (d. 1191) by Henry IV in 1080, Odo was elected pope in Terracina, south of Rome, on March 12, 1088.
Pontificate.
As pope, Urban II found active support for his policies and reforms among several groups: the nobility, whose mentality and interests he knew; the monks; the canons regular, for whom he became patron and legislator; and also, increasingly, the bishops.
Urban felt that his most urgent task was to secure his position against the antipope Clement III and to establish his authority as legitimate pope throughout Christendom. He attempted, with moderation and tolerance, to reconcile the church-state traditions of his age with ecclesiastical notions of reform. In practice he pushed the controversial question of lay investiture—the act whereby a temporal ruler granted title and possession to a church office—more into the background while at the same time retaining reform legislation. He thus softened the conflict and permitted a more peaceful discussion of the problems at issue. At the Council of Clermont (France), in 1095, during which he eloquently called the First Crusade, Urban attempted, however, to prevent a further and complete feudalization of church-state relationships by prohibiting the clergy from taking oaths of fealty to laymen.
Despite Urban's attempts at reconciliation, it did not prove possible to come to terms with Henry IV or with a large part of the church within the empire. England also remained closed to papal policies of reform and centralization, although Urban had been recognized there since 1095; a conflict between Anselm, the theologian who was named archbishop of Canterbury, and King William II particularly strained the relations between Urban and the king. On the other hand, despite a long-standing conflict between Philip I of France and Urban (brought about by the king's scandalous marriage), France began under this French pope to become the most important support of the medieval papacy. Urban obtained special support in southern Europe: his particularly faithful allies were the Normans of southern Italy and Sicily. In Spain, Urban supported the Christian reconquest of the country from the Moors and carried out the ecclesiastical reorganization of the country. In southern Italy, southern France, and Spain, kings and princes became vassals of the Roman see and concluded treaties and concordats in feudal form with the pope: by this the temporal rulers sought to secure their independence from more powerful lords, and the pope for his part was able to carry out his reform aims in these territories.
From 1095 Urban was at the height of his success. From this time several important church councils took place: in 1095 at Piacenza, Italy, at which reform legislation was enacted; also in 1095 at Clermont, where Urban preached the First Crusade; in 1098 at Bari, Italy, where he worked for a reunion between Greek Christians and Rome; and in 1099 at Rome, where again reform legislation was passed. Urban's idea for a crusade and his attempt to reconcile the Latin and Greek churches sprang from his idea of the unity of all Christendom and from his experiences with the struggles against the Muslims in Spain and Sicily. He was, for a while, able to attract the Byzantine emperor Alexius I to his plans but never the Greek church. Whereas the First Crusade led to military success with the conquest of Jerusalem in 1099, the project for union failed. Urban's pontificate not only led to a further centralization of the Roman Catholic church but also to the expansion of papal administration; it contributed to the development of the Roman Curia, the administrative body of the papacy, and to the gradual formation of the College of Cardinals. The term Curia Romana first appeared in a bull written by Urban in 1089.
Urban died in Rome in 1099. Despite many problems that were still unsolved, the victory of medieval reform papacy was secured. Urban was beatified in 1881 by Pope Leo XIII.
Additional reading
A full account of Urban II's life and pontificate is given by A. Becker, Papst Urban II, vol. 1 (1964; vol. 2 in prep.). The chapters by F. Kempf in H. Jedin and J. Dolan (eds.), Handbuch der Kirchengeschichte, vol. 3 (1966; Handbook of Church History, vol. 3, 1969), present a good survey of Urban's history and offer a rich bibliography. The First Crusade and its connection with the history of Byzantium is related by S. Runciman in A History of the Crusades, vol. 1 (1951). Among the earlier biographies, the work of H.K. Mann, The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, 2nd ed., vol. 7 (1925), still has value. Among the more important later works are A. Fliche in Histoire de l'Église, vol. 8 (1944); and J. Haller, Das Papsttum, vol. 2 (1951).
Alfons Becker
Copyright © 1994-2002 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Sources
- Encylopedia Britannica 2002, Expanded Edition DVD
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